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Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 2005;65(5):395-402.
Dugue B, Smolander J, Westerlund T, Oksa J, Nieminen R, Moilanen E, Mikkelsson M.
Laboratory of Exercise-Induced Physiological Adaptations (EA3813), University of Poitiers, Poitiers, France.
The effects of severe cold stress on total peroxyl radical trapping antioxidant capacity of plasma (TRAP) were studied in two groups of healthy women: a whole-body cryotherapy group (WBC, n = 10) and a winter swimming group (WS, n = 10). The biovariability of TRAP values was also analysed. The WBC group was exposed to -110 degrees C for 2 min, whereas the exposure for the WS group lasted 20 s in ice-cold water. Sessions were organized three times per week for 12 weeks. Blood specimens were collected at 2, 4, 8 and 12 weeks at rest, 2 and 35 min after the cold exposures and at the corresponding times without cold exposure on a separate day. Conventional methods were used to determine TRAP values. The between-subject variation was 13.6% and the within-subject variation 6.4%. The index of individuality was 0.46, and the index of heterogeneity was 0.079. These results indicate a marked heterogeneity among subjects. During the first 4 weeks, the mean TRAP value significantly increased at 2 min after cold exposure in the WBC group, returning to baseline 35 min after the exposure. Similar changes were observed in the WS group. However, all changes due to cold were relatively mild (<5%). After 4 weeks no changes in TRAP values after the cold exposures were noticed and no long-term changes in basal TRAP values were observed. In the main, regular WBC and WS do not seem to be harmful as far as plasma antioxidative capacity is concerned.
Physiol Behav. 2004 Sep 30;82(4):691-5.
Smolander J, Mikkelsson M, Oksa J, Westerlund T, Leppaluoto J, Huttunen P.
Orton Orthopaedic Hospital and Orton Research Institute, Tenholantie 10, Helsinki FIN-00280, Finland.
Whole-body cryotherapy (WBC; -110 degrees C) and winter swimming (WS) in ice-cold water are severe ambient cold exposures, which are voluntarily practiced by humans in minimal clothing. The purpose was to examine thermal sensation and thermal comfort associated with WBC and WS. Twenty women similar in body mass index, age, physical activity, and use of hormonal contraception were pairwise randomized either to the WBC group or the WS group. The duration of each WBC exposure was 2 min, which was repeated three times per week for 3 months (13 weeks). Similar exposure frequency was used for the WS group, but each exposure lasted 20 s in outdoor conditions. Thermal sensation and comfort were asked with standard scales. After WBC, 65% of the thermal sensation votes were 'neutral' or 'slightly cool.' After WS, 81% of the thermal sensation votes were 'warm,' 'neutral,' or 'slightly cool.' Majority of comfort votes immediately after exposures in WBC group (98%) and in the WS group (93%) were 'comfortable' or 'slightly uncomfortable.' Thermal sensation and comfort became habituated in both groups at an early stage of trials, but the changes were less conclusive in WS group due to variable conditions outdoors. In the WBC group, cold sensation was less intense already after the second exposure. In conclusion, repeated exposures to WBC and WS in healthy women were mostly well tolerated and comfortable. The results indicate that during repeated severe whole-body cold stress of short duration, thermal sensation and comfort become habituated during the first exposures. Copyright 2004 Elsevier Inc.
Clin Physiol. 2000 Mar;20(2):114-21.
Dugue B, Leppanen E.
Minerva Foundation, Institute for Medical Research, Tukholmankatu 2, 00250 Helsinki, Finland.
The cytokine response after thermal stress (sauna + swimming in ice-cold water) was investigated in subjectively healthy persons. Two groups were studied at the end of the winter season: habitual and inexperienced winter swimmers. Blood was collected at rest, after a sauna bath and after a short swim in ice-cold water. Conventional methods and ELISA kits were used to determined the blood picture, serum cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate, plasma anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) levels, and the levels of several cytokines in plasma and in the supernatants of blood cell cultures which were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In regular winter swimmers, the concentrations of plasma interleukin 6 (IL-6), leukocytes, and monocytes at rest were significantly higher than in inexperienced subjects. In experienced female winter swimmers, the plasma concentration of the soluble receptor for IL-6 was significantly lower than in inexperienced female swimmers. In both groups, granulocytosis, haemoconcentration and significant increases in the concentrations of ADH, cortisol and IL-6 were observed after the stimuli. However, the changes in the cortisol concentration were dramatically larger in habitual winter swimmers. A significant correlation was found between the delta values of cortisol and the basal concentrations of IL-6. In cell cultures, the LPS-induced release of IL-1beta and IL-6 was higher at rest in the inexperienced winter swimmers. This release was dramatically suppressed after exposure to the stimuli in the inexperienced winter swimmers but tended to increase in the regular winter swimmers. These stresses appear to challenge both the neuro-endocrine and the immune systems and the results indicate that adaptive mechanisms occur in habitual winter swimmers.
Int J Circumpolar Health. 2001 Aug;60(3):400-6.
Huttunen P, Rintamaki H, Hirvonen J.
Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Oulu, Finland.
This study deals with the adaptation of the sympathoadrenal responses to an acute cold water immersion in ordinary winter swimmers. Hormonal responses were determined at the beginning of the winter swimming period in the autumn and after regular swimming for one and three months. Water temperature in the river was 10 degrees C at the beginning and 4 degrees C after one and three months. The mean duration of the test immersion was 36 s. Plasma catecholamine levels determined before the test immersion decreased with the winter swimming period for one month (NA, p < 0.001, A, p < 0.01). The test immersion significantly increased noradrenaline levels (p < 0.001). Plasma adrenaline and serum cortisol levels were increased or decreased by the immersion. After 1 month's swimming the test immersion to 4 degrees C increased noradrenaline to a similar level than the immersion to 10 degrees C at the beginning. Regularly practiced winter swimming for three months led to diminished catecholamine levels measured immediately after the test immersion (p < 0.01). The results suggest that cold adaptation induced by winter swimming attenuates the catecholamine responses to cold water. Adrenaline responses are also affected by its level prior to the immersion.
Free Radic Biol Med. 1994 Mar;16(3):299-305.
Siems WG, van Kuijk FJ, Maass R, Brenke R.
Institute of Biochemistry, Medical Faculty (Charite), Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany.
Ten healthy subjects who swim regularly in ice-cold water during the winter (winter swimming), were evaluated before and after this short-term whole body exposure. A drastic decrease in plasma uric acid concentration was observed during and following the exposure to the cold stimulus. We hypothesize that the uric acid decrease can be caused by its consumption after formation of oxygen radicals. In addition, the erythrocytic level of oxidized glutathione and the ratio of oxidized glutathione/total glutathione also increased following cold exposure, which supports this hypothesis. Furthermore, the baseline concentration of reduced glutathione was increased and the concentration of oxidized glutathione was decreased in the erythrocytes of winter swimmers as compared to those of nonwinter swimmers. This can be viewed as an adaptation to repeated oxidative stress, and is postulated as mechanism for body hardening. Hardening is the exposure to a natural, e.g., thermal stimulus, resulting in an increased tolerance to stress, e.g., diseases. Exposure to repeated intensive short-term cold stimuli is often applied in hydrotherapy, which is used in physical medicine for hardening.
Med Hypotheses. 2003 Nov-Dec;61(5-6):654-6.
Kolettis TM, Kolettis MT.
University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece. thkolet@cc.uoi.gr
Swimming in cold water during the winter season is an extreme sport, with fans all over the world. However, its effects on health have been debated. This article examines the hypothesis that the effects of winter swimming may depend on previous exposure to cold stimuli. Immersion in cold water in unaccustomed persons may lead to detrimental consequences, while, in regular winter swimmers, adaptive physiologic mechanisms increase tolerance to cold. Furthermore, these mechanisms may prevent the occurrence of a wide variety of diseases. Prospective studies and epidemiological data are needed to test this hypothesis.
Int J Circumpolar Health. 2002 Nov;61(4):363-72.
Hirvonen J, Lindeman S, Matti J, Huttunen P.
Department of Forensic, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
OBJECTIVES: The study was a follow-up one, in which blood pressure and hormonal changes were investigated during one winter swimming season in winter swimmers (WSs) and non-swimmer controls on three occasions (autumn, winter and spring). Humoral results were compared to psychological traits recorded at the time of the three blood samplings. RESULTS: Mean systolic blood pressure of the WSs fell from 134 +/- 12 mmHg to 128 +/- 12 mmHg (p < 0.05) during the winter, and a slight but non-significant drop was also seen in the controls. Mean plasma noradrenaline concentrations diminished significantly from autumn to spring, and more so in the WS-group, but no statistically significant difference was observed between the groups. Adrenaline levels also showed a decreasing trend, and the change was significant when calculated by using the combined means of both groups. Plasma homovanillic acid and beta-endorphin values were on the same level in all seasonal samples in both groups. Plasma serotonin levels decreased in both groups by about 50 per cent by spring, but 5-HIAA did not change significantly. HVA showed correlation with blood pressure and anxiety in the autumn (r=0.367). In the winter measurement endorphin and hysteria had a negative correlation (r=0.370). In the spring 5-HIAA and obsessionality had a positive correlation (r=0.351). DISCUSSIONS: In summary, blood pressure and plasma catecholamine levels decreased during winter swimming practice over one winter, but these changes were also observed in the control persons. Plasma serotonin was lower in the spring in both groups. The changes in the humoral status speak for adaptation to the research situation, or reflect seasonal variation from autumn to spring. No clear effect of winter swimming as such was detected.
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